Review of DNA and Protein Microarray for BioMEMS Technology

Review of DNA and Protein Microarray for BioMEMS Technology In recent years increase in genetically caused diseases is one of the major threat to mankind. Some of the genetically caused diseases are down syndrome, diabetes, obesity, sickle cell anemia, cystic fibrosis. This review paper explains how BioMEMS (Biological MicroElectroMechanicalSystem) technology used in microarrays and finding of gene expression which leads to medicine for particular diseases. BioMEMS research has been acquiring importance, due to the possibility of exploiting miniaturization to create new opportunities in medicine. BioMEMS systems in general have more diversity of materials and function than conventional MEMS devices. In BioMEMS ink-jet printing, photolithography techniques were introduced to deposit protein and DNA in array. DNA and protein micro-arrays based BioMEMS could be very extensively for rapid detection, drug discovery, and screening, especially when combined with integrated micro-fluidics and sensitive detection technologies. The techniques used to d efine patterns on semiconductor surfaces were utilized to construct arrays of single-stranded DNA. Once single strands of known sequences (capture probes) are placed at specific known sites on a chip surface, hybridization with molecules of unknown sequence (target probes) can reveal the sequence. Microarray-based gene expression profiling can be used to identify genes whose expression is changed in response to  disease caused genetically by comparing gene expression in infected to that in uninfected cells or tissues. Protein and antibody arrays can play a key role in search for disease-specific proteins that have medical, diagnostic, prognostic, and commercial potential as disease markers or as drug targets and for determination of predisposition to specific disease via genotypic screening. Array-based integrated chips and micro-fluidics hold a great potential for the development of high-throughput approaches to systematically analyze these proteins and to assign a biological fun ction, determine protein-protein and protein-DNA interactions. This paper tells about varies applications of BioMEMS to detect the defective gene the causes diseases and the fabrication methods used in microarrays chip production. Keywords: LOC Lab-on-a-chip, BioMEMS (Biological MicroElectroMechanicalSystem), ÃŽÂ ¼TAS (Micro Total Analysis System), Oligonucleotide, Microdroplets , Electrospray. 1. Introduction Microarray technology has been applied to study of gene expression to study mechanisms of diseases and to accelerate the drug discovery process. There is a definite trend towards increasing the use of molecular diagnostic methods, and biochip technologies, along with bioinformatics techniques. Classification of human disease using microarrays is considered to be important. The emphasis is not only on diagnosis but also on disease management, including monitoring the effect of treatment and determining prognosis [1]. Microarray and lab-on-a-chip systems are going to fulfill these new requirements, including the miniaturization of biological assays as well as the parallelization of analysis. Although the concept has been performed by miniaturizing the analytical equipments, the technology comes from the microeletromechanical and microelectronics industries [2]. Lab-on-a-chip technology is the method of choice to integrate processes and reaction and scale them down from conventional gla ssware to microfluidics, involving micro-sized channels in glass or polymer chips [3]. DNA microarray also knows as DNA chips, comprise a new technology emerging at a tremendous pace because of its power, flexibility, sensitivity and relative simplicity [4]. BioMEMS for proteomics can be divided into LOC device for specific tasks such as protein isolation, purification, digestion, and separation; and microarray device for high throughput study of protein abundance and function. An emergence of DNA, protein microarray has emerged over the last few years with commercial potential beyond the confines of the research laboratory [5]. In this paper we start our discussion with the history of microarray; subsequently we go into the details of general techniques used in DNA and protein microarray followed by fabrication and the application and future of microarray. 2. History of Microarray Microarray technology evolved from Southern blotting, where fragmented DNA is attached to a substrate and then probed with a known gene or fragment [6]. The first reported use of this approach was the analysis of 378 arrayed lysed bacterial colonies each harboring a different sequence which were assayed in multiple replicas for expression of the genes in multiple normal and tumor tissue [7]. These early gene arrays were made by spotting cDNA onto filter paper with a pin-spotting device. The use of miniaturized microarray for gene expression profiling was first reported in 1995 [8]. This technology allowed scientists to analyze thousands of mRNAs in a single experiment to determine whether expression is different in disease state. Unfortunately, mRNA levels within a cell are often poorly correlated with actual protein abundance [9]. A complete eukaryotic genome on a microarray was published in 1997[10]. The development of biochip has a long history, starting with early work on the und erlying sensor technology. In 1953, Watson and Crick announced their discovery of now familiar double helix structure and sequencing techniques by Gilbert and Sanger in 1977 [11, 12]. Two additional developments enable the technology used in modern DNA-based biosensors. First, in 1983 Kary Mullis invented the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique, a method for amplifying DNA concentration. This discovery made possible the detection of extremely small quantities of DNA in samples. Second, in 1986 Hood and co-workers devised a method to label DNA molecules with fluorescent tags instead of radiolables, thus enabling hybridization experiments to be observed optically [13]. A big boost in research and commercial interest came in the mid 1990s, when ÃŽÂ ¼TAS (Micro Total Analysis System) technology turned out to provide interesting tooling for genomics application, like capillary electrophoresis and DNA microarray [14]. Immunoassays, the precursor to protein chips available since t he 1980s, exploit the interactions between antibodies and antigens in order to detect their concentrations in biology sample. Their creation, however, is tedious and expensive. As to this, research at Harvard University combined the technology of immunoassays and DNA microarray to develop the protein chip [15]. 3. DNA Microarrays and Fabrication 3.1 Introduction Microarray analysis allows simultaneous of gene and gene products, including DNA, mRNA and proteins. There are basically two formats: cDNA microarrays and oligonucleotide microarrays. A cDNA microarray is an orderly arrangement of DNA probe spot printed onto a solid matrix such as glass, nylon, or silicon. The substrate is usually less than 4ÃÆ'-4 cm, while the spot size is less than 250ÃŽÂ ¼m. A DNA molecular probe is tethered (embedded and immobilized) to each spot on microarray. surface modification of the substrate, such as wit poly-L-lysin or silane, facilitates adhesion of the DNA probes. Hybridization is the base pairing between target and the probe, and is limited by the sensitivity and specificity of the microarray. There are three basic types of oligonucleotide microarrays: gene expression, genotyping (SNPs), and resquencing. Genomic DNA may be used for the study of SNPs, while expressed DNA sequence (cDNA clones, expressed sequence tags or ESTs) are used for gene expre ssion [17]. 3.2 Microarrays for Gene Expression Gene expression microarrays are tools that tell how much RNA (if any) a gene is making. Since 1977, and prior to microarray, only a few genes could be studied at a time using the northern blot analysis. GeneChip (Fig. 1.1) microarrays use the natural chemical attraction, or hybridization, between DNA on the array and RNA target molecule from the sample based on complementary base pairs. Only RNA target molecule that have exact complementary base pair bind to the prob. Gene expression detection microarray is that they are able to measure tens of thousands of genes at a time, and it is this quantitative change in the scale of gene measurement that has led to a qualitative change in our ability to understand regulatory processes that occur at the cellular level. It is possible to obtain near comprehensive expression data for individual tissues or organs in various states. Compressions are possible for transcriptional activity across different tissue, and group of patients with and witho ut a particular disease or with two different diseases. Microarray studies are designed in principle to directly measure the activity of the genes involved in particular mechanism or system rather than their association with a particular biological or clinical feature [18]. Although genes may be thousand of base pairs long, it is only necessary to construct a probe of 25 bases that represent a unique complementary portion of the target gene. In other words, the short probe on the microarray measures the expression of the complete gene by sampling only a small section of the gene. In some instances, as little as one RNA molecule out of 100,000 different RNAs in an original sample may be detected [19]. Sensitivity is the ability to identify the rarely expressed transcripts in a complex background. Specification is the ability to discern between different family members. The hybridization efficiency of two nucleic acid strand depends on 1) Sequence-dependent factors for length, extent of complementarity, and overall base composition; 2) Sequence independent factors such as the concentration of the probe and target, time, temperature, cation concentration, valency character, pH, dielectric and chaotropic medica, surface characteristics of the solid, and density spacing of the probe molecules; and 3) Sample-dependent complex background signal, which are probes interacting with the wrong complementary sequence [20]. Fig 1.1 GeneChip probe microarray cartridge (Image courtesy of Affmetrix) 3.3 Microarray for SNPs Small difference in a DNA sequence can have major impact on health. Deletions, insertions, and other mutations of as little as a single base pair may result in signification disease. Identification these mutations require determining the exact sequence for thousand of SNPs distributed throughout the genome. Using microarray, it is possible to scan the whole genome and look for genetic similarities among a group of people who share the same disease. Using microarray to genotype 10,000 to 100,000 SNPs, it is possible to identify the gene or group of genes that contribute to disease. For example, if a large group of people with a given diagnosis have several SNPs in common, but not healthy people, then mutations may be looked for within those SNPs. A genotyping microarray may look for up to 100,000 SNPs or more [21]. 3.4 Fabrication DNA spotting may be accomplished by depositing PCR amplified ESTs (500-5000 base pairs), or by in suit synthesis of oligodeoxynucleotide sequences (20-50 base pairs) on the substrate. There are variety of spotting techniques that include mechanical and ink-jet style application. The GeneChip brand arrays provide high levels of reproducibility, sensitivity, and specification. The following process steps are used for fabrication of the GeneChip: 1) GeneChip probe array are manufactured through a combination of photolithography (Fig 1.2) and combinatorial chemistry. With a calculated minimum number of synthesis steps, GeneChip technology produce array with hundreds of thousands of different probes packed at an extremely high density. Small sample volumes are required for study. Manufacture is scalable because the length of the probe, not their number, determines the number of synthesis steps required. 2) Manufacturing begins with a 5-in square quartz wafer. Initially the quartz is washed to ensure uniform hydroxylation across its surface. Because quarts is naturally hydroxylated, it provides an excellent substrate for the attachment of chemical, such as linker molecules, that are later used to position the probes on the arrays. Fig 1.2 Photolithographic technique are used to locate and add nucleotides for fabrication of array of probe (Image courtesy of Affymetrix) 3) The wafer is placed in a bath of silane, which reacts with hydroxyl groups of quartz, and forms a matrix of covalently linked molecules. This distance between these silane determines the probes packing density, allowing array to hold over 500,000 probe location, or features, within a mere 1.28cm2. Each of these features harbors millions of identical DNA molecules. The silane film provides a uniform hydroxyl density to initiate probe assembly. Linker molecules, attached to the silane matrix, provide a surface that may be spatially activated by light (Fig 1.3). 4) Probe synthesis occurs in parallel, resulting in the addition of an A, C, T or G nucleotide to multiple growing chains simulataneously. To define which oligonucleotide chains will receive a nucleotide in each step, photolithographic masks, carrying 18 to 20 ÃŽÂ ¼m2 windows that corresponds to the dimensions of individual features, are placed over the coated wafer. The windows are distributed over the mask based on the desired sequence each. When the UV light is shone over the mask in the first step of synthesis, the exposed linkers become deprotected and are available for nucleotide coupling. critical to this step is the precise alignment of the mask with the wafer before each synthesis step. To ensure that this critical step is accurately completed, chrome marks on the wafer and on the mask are perfectly aligned. 5) Once the desired features have been activated, a solution containing a single type of deoxynucleotide with a removable protection group is flushed over the wafers surface. The nucleotide attaches to the activated linkers, initiating the synthesis process. 6) Although the process is highly efficient, some activated molecules fail to attach the new nucleotide. To prevent these outliers from becoming probes with missing nucleotides, a capping step is used to truncate them. In additional, the side chains of the nucleotides are protected to prevent the formation of branched oligonucleotides. Fig 1.3 GeneChip fabrication steps (Image courtesy Affmetrix). 7) In the next synthesis step, another mask is placed over the wafer to allow the next round of deprotection and coupling. The process is repeated until the probes reach their full length, usually 25 nucleotides. 8) Although each position in the sequence of an oligonucleotide can be occupied by one of four nucleotides, resulting in an apparent need for 24ÃÆ'-4, or 100, different masks per wafer, the synthesis process can be designed to significantly reduce this requirement. Algorithms that help minimize mask usage calculate how to best coordinate probe growth by adjusting synthesis rates of individual probes and identifying situations when the same mask can be multiple times. 9) Once the synthesis is completed, the wafer are deprotected and diced, and the resulting individual arrays are picked and packed in flowcell cartridges. Depending on the number of probe features per array, a single wafer can yield between 49 and 400 arrays. 10) The manufacturing process ends with a comprehensive series of quality control tests. Additional, a sampling of array from every wafer is used to test the batch by running control hybridizations. A quantitative test of hybridization is also performed using standardized control probes [22]. 3.5 Microarray Data Analysis Data filtration is performed by selecting threshold pixel intensity; and 2-, 5-, or 10- fold difference between the samples. Different genes with an identical profile may represent a coordinate response to a stimulus. Genes with opposite profiles may represent repression. To compare expression profiles it is necessary to define a set of metrics, or operations that return a value that is proportional in some way to the similarities or difference between two expression profiles. The most commonly used metrics are Euclidean distance and Pearson coefficient of correlation [23]. 3.5.1 Euclidean Distance Two or more profile of each of two genes are compared as a mathematical matrix operation of n-dimensional space, where n is the number of expression patterns available. The Euclidean distance is the square root of the summation of the difference between all pairs of corresponding values. For two genes the distance is as follows: Where d is the distance, e1 is the expression pattern of gene1, e2 is the expression pattern of gene 2, and i is the element of the expression profile: Gene1 (e11, e12, ., e1n) and gene1 (e21, e22, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.,e2n). 3.5.2 Pearson Correlation Coefficient The Pearson correlation coefficient (r) gives a value of from -1 to 1, and closer to 1 (negative and positive correlation, respectively). The closer two profiles have the same expression, the closer the value will be to 1: Where and Sen are the mean and typical deviation of all of the point of the nth profile, respectively. 4. Protein Microarray and Fabrication 4.1 Introduction Protein microarrays are becoming an important tool in proteomics, drug discovery programs, and diagnostics [24]. The amount of information obtained from small quantities of biological samples is significantly increased in the microarray format. This feature is extremely valuable in protein profiling, where samples are often limited in supply and unlike DNA, cannot be amplified [25]. Protein microarrays are more challenging to prepare than are DNA chips [26] because several technical hurdles hamper their application. The surfaces typically used with DNA are not easily adaptable to proteins, owing to the biophysical differences between the two classes of bioanalytes [27]. Arrayed protein must be immobilized in a native conformation to maintain their biological function. Unfortunately, proteins tend to unfold when immobilized onto a support so as to allow internal hydrophobic side chains to from hydrophobic bonds with the solid surface [28]. Surface chemistry, capture agents, and detect ion methods take on special significance in developing microarrays. Microarrays consist of microscopic target spots, planer substrates, rows and columns of elements, and probe molecules in solution. Each protein assessed by a microarray should be the same as the partial concentration of each protein in the biological extract [29]. The past ten years have witnessed a fascinating growth in the field of large-scale and high-throughput biology, resulting in a new era of technology development and the collection and analysis of information. The challenges ahead are to elucidate the function of every encoded gene and protein in an organism and to understand the basic cellular events mediating complex processes and those causing diseases [30-33]. Protein are more challenging to prepare for the microarray format than DNA, and protein functionality is often dependent on the state of proteins, such as post-translational modification, partnership with other proteins, protein subcellular locali zation, and reversible covalent modification (e.g. phosphorylation). Nonetheless, in recent years there have been considerable achievements in preparing microarray containing over 100 proteins and even an entire proteome [34-36]. Randox Laboratories Ltd. Launched Evidence, the first protein Biochip Array Technology analyzer in 2003. In protein Biochip Array Technology, the biochip replaces the ELISA (Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) plate or cuvette as the reaction platform. The biochip is used to simultaneously analyze a panel of related tests in a single sample, producing a patient profile. The patient profile can be used in disease screening, diagnosis, monitoring disease progression or monitoring treatment (wiki Biochip). Protein expression profiling, protein-protein binding, drug interaction, protein folding, substrate specificity, enzymatic activity, and the interaction between protein and nucleic acids are among the application of protein microarrays. Abundance-based microarray, including capture microarray and reverse-phase protein blots, measure the abundance of specific biomolecules using well defined and high specific analyte-specific reagents (ASRs). Different classes of molecules can act as capture molecules in microarray assays, including antigen-antibody, protein -protein, aptamer-ligand, enzyme-substrate, and receptor-ligand [37]. 4.2 Spotting In situ synthesis of protein microarrays as done for DNA microarrays is impractical. Other forms of delivery-based technology must be incorporated. One-drop-at-a-time (microspotting) techniques including use of pins, quills or hollow needles that repeatedly touch the substrate surface depositing one spot after the next in an array format; shooting microdroplets from a ejector similar to ink-jet printing; and depositing charged submicron-sized droplets by electrospray deposition (ESD). Alternatively, parallel techniques such as microcontact printing (ÃŽÂ ¼CP), digital ESD, and photolithographic controlled protein adsorption can be used. Currently, micospotting by robotic techniques has greater use in the research setting, whereas parallel techniques offer cost saving for mass production for commercial use [38]. 4.3 Microcontact printing (ÃŽÂ ¼CP) In microcontact printing stamps are typically made from a silicon elastomer and used to make a microarray of spots with feature size from 0.01 to 0.1ÃŽÂ ¼m. Steps for stamping include the following [38]: 1) Activation of the stamp surface to increase hydrophilicity or to introduce grups for inking to target molecules such as antibodies, protein A, or streptavidin. 2) Direct adsorption of protein molecules or their binding to capture molecules over a period of 0.5-1 hours. 3) Rinsing. 4) Drying in a nitrogen stream for about a minute. 5) Pressing the stamp against a suitable substrate for about a minute to allow transfer of the semidry materials. Disadvantages include poor control of the amount of materials transferred, small amount of deposited materials, and possible changes in protein function. Microarrays containing up three different proteins were fabricated by ÃŽÂ ¼CP technique and tested as a detection system for specific antibodies [39]. Immunoassay were successfully performed using the patterned protein microarrays, and were characterized by fluorescence microscopy and scanning- probe microscopy. The characterization revealed the quality of the protein deposition and indicated a high degree of selectivity for the targeted antigen-antibody interaction. 4.3 Electrospray Deposition (ESD) The basic physics underlying the newly emerging technique of electrospray deposition (ESD) as applied to biological macromolecules. Fabrication of protein films and microarrays are considered as the most important applications of this technology. All the major stages in the ESD process (solution electrification, formation of a cloud of charged microdroplets, transformation of microdroplets into ions and charged clusters, deposition, and neutralization) are discussed to reveal the physical processes involved, such as space charge effects, dissipation of energy upon landing and neutralization mechanisms [40]. In electrospray deposition, protein is transferred from the glass capillary positioned 130-350 ÃŽÂ ¼m above a conducting surface. Micro-sized charged droplets move in an electric field created by the difference in electric field potential between the tip and the substrate surface and by the spatial charge of the droplet cloud. The electrostatic repulsion expands the cloud, and microdroplets are deposited as a round spot. The spot density is greater at the center [38]. Two new techniques were recently developed in these laboratories for fabrication of protein microarrays: electrospray deposition of dry proteins and covalent linking of proteins from dry deposits to a dextran-grafted surface. Here we apply these techniques to simultaneously fabricate 1200 identical microarrays. Each microarray, 0.6 ÃÆ'- 0.6 mm2 in size, consists of 28 different protein antigens and allergens deposited as spots, 30à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢40 ÃŽÂ ¼m in diameter. Electrospray deposition (ESD) of dry protein and covalent linking of proteins from dry deposits to a dextran-grafted surface has been studied from fabrication of microarrays. Electrospray (ES) deposition has been applied to fabricate protein microarrays for immunochemical assay. Protein antigens were deposited as arrays of dry spots on a surface of aluminized plastic. Deposition was performed from water solutions containing a 10-fold (w/w of dry protein) excess of sucrose. Upon contact with humid air, the spots tur n into microdroplets of sucrose/protein solution from which proteins were either adsorbed or covalently linked to clean or modified aluminum surfaces. It was found that covalent binding of antigens via aldehyde groups of oxidized branched dextran followed by reduction of the Schiff bonds gives the highest sensitivity and the lowest background in microarray-based ELISA, as compared to other tested methods of antigen immobilization [41]. Protein microarray with an antibody-based protein array for high-throughput immunoassay, with an ESD method using a quartz mask with holes made by an abrasive jet technique, has been performed. An antibody solution was electrosprayed onto an ITO glass, and then antibodies were deposited and cross-linked with a vapor of glutaraldehyde. The dimeters of the spots were approximately 150 ÃŽÂ ¼m. The arrays were then incubated with corresponding target antigenic molecules and washed. The captured antigens were collectively detected by fluorescence and chemiluminescence. The signals were quantitatively visualized with a high-resolution CCD [42]. 4.4 Surface immobilization In many proteomics applications, one is interested in the facile and covalent immobilization of protein molecules without the use of any special tag or chemical modification. This is most conveniently achieved via chemical reactivity towards the commonly available -NH2 groups on the surface of protein molecules. One of the most efficient leaving groups towards -NH2 is N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) attached via an ester bond. We have developed an NHS surface based on the zero background PEG coating. It allows for fast immobilization reactions with the remaining NHS groups easily washed off to expose the zero background PEG coating (Fig 1.4). In subsequent assays, the PEG functionality ensures that binding of particular molecules to the surface is only through the specific interaction with the immobilized protein molecule and the commonly seen background problem is solved without the need of a blocking step. Fig 1.4 NHS activated surfaces for the immobilization of proteins, peptides, antibodies (Image courtesy: ZeroBkg ® ) Peptide and protein microarrays fabricated on NHS/PEG/glass slides (Fig 1.5) Nanoliter droplets of peptide (21 amino-acids) or protein (fibrinogen) solution containing 10% glycerol are deposited on the glass slide with a robotic arrayer and incubated for 10 minutes. NHS-groups in remaining area are removed by a deactivating buffer for 30 minutes at room temperature. The immobilized peptide or protein on the surface is detected by incubation with the primary antibody specifically against the peptide or fibrinogen, followed by wash and incubation with cy3-conjugated secondary antibody. The glass slides are imaged on a laser scanner. The most important result is the exceptionally low background due to the PEG coating. While the NHS/PEG coated glass slides are ideal for protein, peptide, and antibody arrays, they are also useful as low background surfaces for other microarrays, such as oligonucleotides, carbohydrates, and other small molecules. The non-fouling property of the high densit y PEG coating becomes critically important when one uses such an array for the study of complex biological samples, such as plasma or serum. In order to detect molecules of low abundance, such as cancer biomarkers, one needs to minimize non-specific adsorption of other abundant biomolecules [43]. Fig 1.5 Fluorescence images of peptide (left) and protein (Fibrinogen, right) microarrays fabricated on NHS/PEG/glass slides and detected by immunostaining. The diameter of each spot is ~100 ÃŽÂ ¼m (Image courtesy: ZeroBkg ® ).   4.5 Self-assembling Protein Microarrays Molecular fabrication of SAMS depends on chemical complementarily and structural compatibility, both of which confer the weak and noncovalent interaction that bind building blocks together during self-assembly. Water-mediated hydrogen bonds are important for living system. In nature the assembly of peptide and proteins has yielded collagen, keratin, pearl, shell, coral and calcite microlenses, and optical waveguides [44]. The application of self-assembly techniques in the design of biocompatible protein microarray surfaces, immobilizing cells, and lipid layers, and spotting techniques has been reviewed by others [45-46]. 4.6 Detection Strategies Detection and readout of complex formation in each spot is performed with fluorescence, chemiluminescence, mass spectrometry, radioactivity, or electrochemistry. Label-free methods include mass spectrometry and SPR. Labeled probe methods include use of a chromogen, fluorophor, or a radioactive isotope. Direct strategies use a labeled antibody to directly bind to the target molecule immobilized on the substrate. Amplification strategies based on avidin-biotin binding enhance sensitivity. Indirect strategies use an immobilized antibody for capturing labeled, specific molecules from the sample. Sandwich assay as noted earlier require two distinct antibodies foe detection of a capture molecule. The first antibody is immobilized on the substratum, and serves to capture the molecule of interest. A second labeled antibody then binds to the first complex allowing detection [47]. 5. Application of Microarray Ever since the first 1000 probe DNA microarray was reported over a decade ago [48], great strides have been made in both quantitative and qualitative applications. Today, a standard DNA chip contains up to 6.5 million spots and can encompass entire eukaryotic genomes. A plethora of alternative applications are continually reported, albeit at various stages of maturity. What was once seen solely as a transcript profiling technology has now emerged as a reliable format for genotyping, splice variant analysis, exon identification, ChIP-on-chip, comparative genomic hybridization (CGH), resequencing, gene synthesis, RNA/RNAi synthesis and onchip translation [49]. Perhaps the most exciting recent developments from a drug discovery perspective come from the integration of diverse technological innovations into microarray-based solutions, especially for other classes of molecular entity. From small molecules (e.g. metabolites, nucleotides, amino acids, sugars) to oligomeric and polymeric der ivatives thereof, microarrays are now allowing us to examine the intra-class (e.g. protein-protein) and inter-class (e.g. protein: small molecule) interactions of these bio-system components on a systems-wide level. Yet, despite the appearance of a diversity of microarray types (e.g. Small Molecule Microarrays (SMMs) [51], Protein-Nucleic acid (PNA) microarrays [52], Glyco-chips [53], peptide chips [54], antibody chips [55], cell and tissue microarrays [56]), each differs in their relative contribution to the Voltaire challenge. Certainly the foremost of such opportunities are thos

Film Autuerism Essay -- essays papers

Film Autuerism Auteurism is a term first coined by Francois Truffaut to describe the mark of a film director on his films. A director can be considered an auteur if about five of his film depict a certain style that is definitely his own. In other words, much like one can look at a painting and tell if it is a Monet, a Renoir, or a Degas, if a film director is an auteur, one can look at his film and tell by style and recurring themes that it was made by a certain director. In auteur films, the director is many times what brings an audience to the theater, instead of the actors or storyline. I am going to take a look at three of the most noted auteurs: Frederico Fellini, Satyajit Ray, and Alfred Hitchcock. I watched five of Frederico Fellini’s films: La Dolce Vita, 8-1/2, Juliet of the Spirits, La Strada, and City of Women. In all of these films, I noticed Fellini’s enormous use of imagery, which of course he is most noted for. However, I also noticed a recurring set of character archetypes. These archetypes are the sex object, the wife, and the typical man. First, we see the use of the sex object in 8-1/2. The young boy and his friends encounter the whore. With this encounter we see that a mixed batch of emotions, delight, cruelty, wonder, scaredness, and finally guilt. This scene is a perfect example of sexual awakening. The whore’s sexuality and the boy’s responses to it are shown with crosscuts between her suggestive motions and their shock and ultimate joy. When she invites the boy to come closer, he has mixed feelings, but is ultimately pressured by his friends. Fellini finishes this episode perfectly- the boys are caught red-handed by adults. In City of Women similar experience is portrayed. This time it is with a loving maternal figure. The young boy is confused when returning her affections- he has a mix of sexual excitement and shameless affection. The camera angle is that of a child’s view, and he looks at her exposed cleavage and her open skirt crossed with cuts of her strong arms and her continuing mate rnal household duties and her embrace. In La Dolce Vita, the sexual object is in a more complex relationship with the man. She is not only an object of desire, and sexual partner, but she is also a friend and confidant of the main character. The second character type that Fellini portrays in several of his films is the wife. In 8-1... ...pless when she puts herself in harms way. Stylistically, this movie was one of Hitchcock’s famous experiments. Almost the entire movie is shot in the main character’s apartment and out of his apartment window. Finally, I watch North by Northwest. In this film as with many of his others including Vertigo and Rear Window, Hitchcock sets up his hero as being the only one who knows the truth, that way he is the sane one and the audience sympathizes. Also very Hitchcockian is that the main character becomes the detective. Stylistically, the audience stays with the main character, only knowing as much as he does. As with both Frederico Fellini and Satyajit Ray, there is no denying Hitchcock's autuerism. When a movie of his begins, there is no doubt from the very beginning as to who may have directed it. Auteurism is a very important aspect to analyzing film. When a director is an auteur, he not only has films that are easily recognized as his, but also he has left his mark on film history. Three important auteurs are Frederico Fellini, Satyajit Ray, and Alfred Hitchcock. All three of these directors have specific styles and recurring themes that they have made their trademark.

Persuasive Essay: Men and Women are not Equal Essay

Men and women are not equal. This phrase has been floating around in one way or another for hundreds of years it is only recently that the United States got rid of this long–standing discrimination. There are many obvious and not-so-obvious reasons why women should be considered equal to men. It is a common misconception that men are smarter and more competent than woman. The reason why this misconception is so popular because men have enjoyed rights that women have been forbidden. In the United States women are paid 22 percent less than man. This inequality in wages can only be attributed to a preconceived notion of the value of women. Whether or not it is intentional, it is the unfortunate reality. Education, experience, and potential seem to have no effect on this inequality. Companies should appreciate the unique impute and experiences of women because they differ so vastly from that of men. Women can bring a new point of view and mentality to the company that will ultimately be beneficial to its end goal. In fact, there are occupations for which women could arguably be better suited, such as therapists and teachers. The natural nurturing traits that women possess make them ideal for occupations that demand support and encouragement. The women’s rights movement in the United States did away with the blatant vialotions of women’s freedom. Unfortunately some countries in the world still have not taken the necessary steps to mirror the United States. Arab countries, in particular have yet to make the change. Women cannot leave their homes without the permissions of they’re husband, they must wear a veil to cover up most of their faces, they cannot own property, or have a voice in society and government. The most obvious and logical defense of women’s freedom is the simple fact that they are human and deserve every right that comes with that title. They should not have to fight for their freedom. It is something that is given to all humans at the moment of their birth. With regards to countries that do not respect the freedoms, they do not realize that having such an archaic view of women reflects badly on them as a country. It suggests that they are not willing or able to move forward with an evolving world. As a result of preconceived notions some women have even become to think  that they are inferior to men. Because of this, domestic violence has become a women’s issue, more specifically unreported domestic violence. This is an issue that need to be addressed because of two reasons. The first is to draw attention to the unreported incidents and to persuade these victims to acknowledged their rights and realize their worth. The second is to expose these unreported attacks as a violation of women’s rights as opposed to a typical irrelevant crime. In conclusion, the modern day women are constantly fighting for her place in society. Whether its salary, freedom, or identity the struggle is a reality with which she must live. However her resilience and perseverance are among the reasons why she deserves to enjoy the rights she possesses. Without a doubt she will overcome any remaining prejudices and obstacles left in the world to be recognized as an equal.

Essay on The Impact of African-American Sitcoms on...

The Impact of African-American Sitcoms on Americas Culture Since its start, the television industry has been criticized for perpetuating myths and stereotypes about African-Americans through characterizations, story lines, and plots. The situation comedy has been the area that has seemed to draw the most criticism, analysis, and disapproval for stereotyping. From Sanford and Son and The Jefferson’s in the 1970s to The Cosby Show (1984) and The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air in the 1990s, sitcoms featuring black casts and characters have always been controversial. However, their significance upon our American culture cannot be disregarded. During the 1950s and 1960s, 97% of the families were Caucasian. In the first five years of the†¦show more content†¦It was criticized for negative stereotyping. Louise Jefferson was like an old-south â€Å"Mammy†, and George, although rich, was always the butt of someone’s joke, whom no one really respected. The difference between the earlier produced Sanford and Son and The Jefferson’s was that The Jefferson’s was based around a strong father figure compared to the drunken old man in Sanford and Son who was not ever there for his children. The Jefferson’s, although initially more racist like Sanford and Son, changed with the times and became less racist. As the show went on, there were signs of less stereotyping. Louise lost her afro and started speaking better, and George became less racist in his attitudes. This change reflected the less strained race relations in the early 1980s. The Cosby Show was one of the biggest hits on television. It was about an African-American upper-middle-class black family. The Huxtables lived in a fashionable neighborhood. The dad, Heathcliff, was a well-respected doctor, and the mom, Clair, was a successful attorney. Their only son, Theo, was an underachiever, and the oldest daughter, Sondra, was a college student at Princeton. Their middle daughter, Denise, tested her parents’ patience frequently, but they always loved her. Rudy, the baby of the family, had a wonderful, entertaining childhood. All of the Huxtable kids were loved and steered clear of serious trouble. They never really had to worry about money.Show MoreRelatedDy-No-Mite! Stereotypical Images of African Americans on Television Sitcoms4305 Words   |  18 PagesStereotypical Images of African-Americans on Television Sitcoms The more television changes, the more it stays the same for the genre of African American sitcoms. Some critics believe that African Americans will never accept the images they see of themselves on network television. Like whites, African Americans on television sitcoms should be portrayed â€Å"in the full array of cultures that exist in our society.† Most likely, the majority of white television viewers see a sitcom as no more than 22 minutesRead More Seinfelds Impact on American Culture Essay2273 Words   |  10 PagesSeinfelds Impact on American Culture Jerry Seinfelds television sitcom, Seinfeld, which went off the air in 1999, is still one of the most culturally pertinent shows today. The show dealt with little nuances of American society. A puffy shirt, for example, could be the main subject for an entire show. This show, which was derived from Jerry Seinfelds observational humor, was voted as the Greatest Show of All Time by TV Guide in 2002. According to the shows official website, theRead MoreThe Pros and Cons of Immigration to the USA Essays2545 Words   |  11 PagesFranklin D. Roosevelt. The United States is a nation of immigrants and the earliest people were the Native Americans who came from Asia. The rest of the people left Europe, Asia, Africa, the Caribbean, South and Central America, the islands of the Pacific, and the Middle East coming more towards the 18th century. The United States has witnessed the transformation from an American Indian population to a rich array of ethnicities and races. Due to high migration, the minority population isRead More Effects of Television on Our Society Essays6952 Words   |  28 Pagesbe entertained by sitcoms, but when we finally pull ourselves up and off the couch, we do not simply leave the images and messages behind. They are now a part of us; all that we have seen and heard becomes a part of our memories and shapes our perceptions of reality, to what extent is arguable. We are constantly interpreting what we see and hear, even subconsciously, and the sitcoms that have steadily infiltrated our daily lives contribute to a shared version of reality. A culture is based upon theseRead MoreThe Sociological Causes Of The Gay Marriage Culture Change1798 Words   |  8 Pagesthe Gay Marriage Culture Change Societies evolve. Nothing better illustrates this fact than America’s rapid surge of acceptance towards same-sex marriage during the early twenty-first century. A 2017 Pew Research study found that nearly 30% of Americans changed their minds on gay marriage less than two decades. In 2001, a mere 35% of Americans supported same-sex marriages— a number that skyrocketed to 62% in 2017 (Pew Research Center, 2017). This is a statistical anomaly. Americans have never changedRead MoreThe Golden Age Of Capitalism3963 Words   |  16 Pagesthe late 1940 s/early 1950 s), marked by economic growth that allowed the expansion of the middle class, consumerism based off of credit, and an anti-communist atmosphere. Some of the most unique and pivotal points of change of social norms in American history happened during the 1950 s. Though we tend to think of the 1950’s as a peaceful time with pleasant suburban living, consumption, and wealth, evidence suggests that this decade wa s actually the beginning of major cultural shifts. The 1950’sRead MoreA Black Girl s Sexual Journey1953 Words   |  8 Pagesand by Black characters in American mainstream media is harmful to the overall healthy sexual development of young Black Women. Journalism, Media Studies Communication It is no doubt that children may learn behaviors by seeing them performed repeatedly in the media. Young girls and boys alike are said to learn about relationships at a very young age through the context of fairy tales, role models, and even online self help relationship texts. However, many Americans can attest to the fact thatRead MoreHow Women Are Portrayed in Media6769 Words   |  28 PagesCommon female stereotypes found in the media have a powerful influence over how society views women and how women view themselves. What is the media portrayal of women today and how does this impact how young girls perceive themselves? With programs such as The Bachelor and Flavor of Love showing a dozen women competing for the attention of one man, often using their sexuality, magazine ads displaying a half-naked female body to sell a fragrance or cosmetic product, and television commercials highlightingRead MoreProduct Placement12588 Words   |  51 Pagesuse product placements increasingly in clever, effective ways that do not cost too much. The purpose of this paper is to examine product placement in terms of definition, use, purposes of product placement, specific media vehicles, variables that impact the effectiveness of product placement, the downside of using product placement, and the ethics of product placement. Keywords: Product placement, brand placement, branded entertainment, in-program sponsoring Product placement effectiveness, PageRead MoreProduct Placement10682 Words   |  43 Pagessponsored by the Indian Packing Company, and later had ACME PACKERS written on their uniforms in the early 1920s after the Acme Packing Company bought Indian Packing. The Steelers adopted their current logo in 1962 as a product-placement deal with the American Iron and Steel Institute, which owned the rights to the Steelmark logo. The Steelers later were allowed to add -ers to the Steelmark logo the following year so that they could own a trademark on the logo. Going the other way, the league has been

Analysis on the Poem Dover Beach by Matthew Arnold

The Poem â€Å"Dover Beach† is a dramatic monologue of thirty-seven lines, divided into four unequal sections or â€Å"paragraphs† of fourteen, six, eight, and nine lines. In the title, â€Å"Beach† is more significant than â€Å"Dover,† for it points at the controlling image of the poem. On a pleasant evening, the poet and his love are apparently in a room with a window affording a view of the straits of Dover on the southeast coast of England, perhaps in an inn. The poet looks out toward the French coast, some twenty-six miles away, and is attracted by the calm and serenity of the scene: the quiet sea, the moon, the blinking French lighthouse, the glimmering reflections of the famous white cliffs of Dover. He calls his love to the window to enjoy the†¦show more content†¦It is only in the fourteenth line, with the mention of â€Å"an eternal note of sadness,† that there is any indication that the reader will be exposed to anything more than a simple description, that in view of what follows one shall have to reorient oneself to the significance of the initial description. The second dominant image in the poem is in lines 25 through 28, expressing the emotional impact of the loss of faith. The individual words add up—melancholy, withdrawing, retreating, vast, drear, naked—re-creating the melancholy sound of the sea withdrawing, leaving behind only a barren and rocky shore, dreary and empty. These images, emphasizing the condition after faith has left, present a void, an emptiness, almost creating a shudder in the reader; it is perhaps a more horrifying image than even the battlefield image with which the poem closes. The last important extended image closes the poem; it is a very common practice for Arnold to supply such closing, summarizing images in an attempt to say metaphorically what he perhaps cannot express directly. (Such closings are to be clearly seen in â€Å"The Scholar-Gipsy,† â€Å"Sohrab and Rustum,† â€Å"Tristram and Iseult,† â€Å"Rugby Chapel,† and others.) The calm of the opening lines is deceptive, a dream. Underneath or behind is the reality of life—a confused struggle, no light, nothing to distinguish good from evil,Show MoreRelatedAnalysis Of The Poem Dover Beach By Matthew Arnold1139 Words   |  5 PagesMonelle Shuman English Lit 202 K. Morefield December 1, 2014 An Analysis of â€Å"Dover Beach† by Matthew Arnold Dover Beach is thought to be one of the best representations of the Victorian Period all together. It portrays the mood and tone of what the people experienced and felt at that time. Around the same time it was written, London had just experienced a massive boom in their population, growing from 2 to 6 million citizens. At the same time, London was becoming one of the first in the countryRead MoreAnalysis Of Matthew Arnold s Dover Beach 1264 Words   |  6 PagesPublished in 1867, Matthew Arnold’s Dover Beach is short lyrical elegy that depicts a couple overlooking the English Channel, questioning the gradual, steady loss of faith of the time. Set against this backdrop of a society’s crisis of faith, Arnold artfully uses a range of literary techniques to reinforce the central theme of the poem, leading some to argue that Dover Beach was one of the first ‘free-verse’ poems of the language. Indeed, the structure and content of the poem goes against all trad itionalRead MoreDover Beach and Farenheit 4511461 Words   |  6 Pages English 2342 20 April 2011 Dover Beach and Fahrenheit 451 The classic poem, Dover Beach, written by Matthew Arnold, is a statement about losing faith as a result of enlightenment. In an emotionally charged scene in Ray Bradbury’s novel, Fahrenheit 451, fireman Guy Montag reads the poem aloud to his wife and her friends. Bradbury could have chosen any piece of literature for Montag to read as a means of unveiling his collection of hoarded books and his newfound interest in reading them. BradburyRead MoreThe Significance of Literary Knowledge in Parodic Poetry: A Look At Anthony Hecht’s The Dover Bitch1100 Words   |  5 Pagesreading with one frame of mind, key themes and ideas can be missed. Poems, on the other hand, can be vague and extremely difficult to pick apart. Poets rely on figurative language to make seemingly random word choices make sense within the right context, and having a vast knowledge of literature becomes essential when reading poetry because one never knows when an allusion can make all the difference. An thony Hecht’s poem The Dover Bitch provides a good example of how figurative language and knowledgeRead MoreAnalysis of the Setting in My Last Duchess and Dover Beach Essay669 Words   |  3 PagesAnalysis of the Setting in My Last Duchess and Dover Beach At first glance the setting of a poem is the psychological and physiological environment in which the story takes place. In some instances, the setting is used to develop the characters. Robert Browning and Matthew Arnold use the setting to expose their character traits. My Last Duchess and Dover Beach, respectively, portray the weaknesses of the characters using elements from the setting. The text, page 629 and 630, tells us thatRead MoreLove And Loss : Happy Endings By Margaret Atwood3620 Words   |  15 Pagesdepressing. Most people would relate love and loss to romantic relationships that ended in breakups; on the contrary, â€Å"Confession Day† allows people to confess the pain they have felt through any of their losses. In the poems â€Å"She Walks in Beauty† by Lord Byron, â€Å"Dover Beach† by Matthew Arnold and in the short story â€Å"Happy Endings† by Margaret Atwood, it is noticed that love and loss can happen in different situations, to di fferent people, at different times. These writings show love and loss in a relationshipRead MoreDover Beach Poem Analysis1739 Words   |  7 PagesUpon reading Matthew Arnold’s poem, â€Å"Dover Beach†, I was greeted with a fleeting sense of tranquility and a lingering emotion of melancholy. Found in his carefully crafted words, Arnold gives an accurate representation of the beliefs held during the era of Realism by using descriptive imagery. His use of imagery is the primary aspect of the work that most interested me. For instance, in the first stanza, the narrator gives the reader the setting of â€Å"Dover Beach†. He states, â€Å"Upon the straits; onRead MoreAnalysis of Dover Beach and The Buried Life by Matthew Arnold 1960 Words   |  8 PagesAnalysis of Dover Beach and The Buried Life by Matthew Arnold Matthew Arnold is one of the many famous and prolific writers from the nineteenth century. Two of his best known works are entitled #61505;Dover Beach#61504; and #61505;The Buried Life.#61504; Although the exact date of composition is unknown, clearly they were both written in the early 1850s. The two poems have in common various characteristics, such as the theme and style. The feelings of the speakers of the poem alsoRead MoreThe Trees Are Down Analysis - Charlotte Mew1621 Words   |  7 Pages Question: Write a critical analysis of The Trees Are Down by Charlotte Mew. In ‘The Trees Are Down’ poet Charlotte Mew seems to be using the trees to symbolize Nature’s being the price of human progress. The poem also seems to have been influenced by the Romantics, through Mew’s detailed description of the trees being cut down, and her personal reaction to this act – she refers to mankind’s indifference towards Nature, and the sadness this causes her, in this poem, where her main focus is man versusRead MoreThe Book of English2652 Words   |  11 Pagesattempts to reclaim his own humanity range from the compassionate and sensitive, as in his conversations with Clarisse, to the grotesque and irresponsible, as in his murder of Beatty and his half-baked scheme to overthrow the firemen. Character Analysis of Guy Montag in Fahrenheit 451 Guy Montag is a fireman who burns books in a futuristic American city. In Montags world, firemen start fires rather than putting them out. The people in this society do not read books, enjoy nature, spend time

Globalization And The Threat Of Cultural Imperialism

Globalization has produced a new level of interconnectedness among us, for it is an interconnectedness that not only compels diversification, but also provides a shared experience into the worldview of the accompanying culture. While the power of globalization would be advantageous in stimulating sustainable economic growth; that same power produces an evolving set of consequences – some good and some bad. In order to understand the effects of globalization and the threat of cultural imperialism, it is important to assess the aspects of cultural homogenization. While the diffusion of many cultures may reduce cultural diversity – it is a necessary evil, for homogenization not only conveys the limits, but also the possibilities and the power the culture holds in sharing their authentic self with the rest of the world. In â€Å"Homogenisation Globalisation†, John Tomlinson explores the threat that homogenisation is to cultural authenticity in developing countries. Tomlinson quotes Ulf Hannerz in defining the threat as â€Å" a tempting ‘master scenario’ of global cultural development † (891). While an integration of mass media may seem both attractive and perfectly sensible in creating a global market, Tomlinson believes that there is still a lack of critical concepts that qualify the idea of homogenization. It is undeniable that wherever there is modernization, westernization will follow. As local cultures are absorbed by more dominant outside cultures, the sharing of mass mediaShow MoreRelatedThe Media And Its Effects On The Global World1550 Words   |  7 Pagesof media and the benefits of globalization, Disney is able to produce and endorse their own American values into a global marketplace; but does Disney contribute to the homogenization or heterogenization of culture on a global level? It will be imperative to initially evaluate Disney’s hegemonic power through their cultural imperialism, and then explore the evidence attributing Disney as homogenizing or heterogenizing culture. The idea that Disney’s cultural imperialism assists in its hegemony isRead MoreThe Persistence of Imperialism Essay1315 Words   |  6 PagesThe Persistence of Imperialism Following World War II, the concrete nature of imperialism, or the subjection of people or groups based on a social, economical, or racial hierarchy, was seemingly in decline. For instance, India and Pakistan had both gained their independence from Britain in 1947 (p.761), and the French, though unwillingly, gave up their colonies in Vietnam (p.754), but with the development of the Cold War there became a need to ideologically separate the free â€Å"First World†, whichRead MoreCultural Globalization: The Emergence of the Americanized World 685 Words   |  3 Pages â€Å"Arguing against globalization is like arguing against the laws of gravity†. Globalization is an inevitable phenomenon in human history that brings about greater interconnectivity and integration of people worldwide. Over the past few decades, the pace of global integration has accelerated quickly and dramatically due to unprecedented advancements in technology, communications, science, transport an d industry (The World Bank, 2013). Globalization affects economical, cultural, technological, politicalRead MoreGlobalization Is A Concept That Can Be Difficult1627 Words   |  7 PagesGlobalization is a concept that can be difficult to fully comprehend, because it is influenced by the theoretical underpinnings of governance, economics, politics, and even culture. Stief (2014) describes globalization as, â€Å"the process of increased interconnectedness among countries most notably in the areas of economics, politics, and culture† (para. 2). As technology bridges the knowledge gap and creates avenues, venues, and networks to connect people, processes, and businesses, the level of generalRead MoreDoes the Caribbean Contribute to the Americanization of Its Media?1322 Words   |  6 Pagesdimensions. In itself this phenomenon does not necessarily imply the homogenisation of contents which threatens cultural diversity.† According to Brian Ssenyonga Americanization. Came about in the early 1900’s and in its inception meant taking new immigrants and turning them into Americans...whether they wanted to give up on their traditional ways or not. This may be known as cultural imperialism. The Americanization process often involved learning English and adjusting to the American culture, customsRead MoreDoes the Caribbean Contribute to the Americanization of Its Media?1336 Words   |  6 Pagesdimensions. In itself this phenomenon does not necessarily imply the homogenisation of contents which threatens cultural diversity.† According to Brian Ssenyonga Americanization. Came about in the early 1900’s and in its inception meant taking new immigrants and turning them into Americans...whether they wanted to give up on their traditional ways or not. This may be known as cultural imperialism. The Americanization process often involved learning English and adjusting to the American culture, customsRead MoreCross-Cultural Exchange1004 Words   |  5 Pagestheir resistance to outside cultural influence. The French believed that globalization will threaten cultural diversity and that American culture will have an adverse effect on French culture. The preservation of French language was a way to retain it cultural identity in the world and not be pushed to a homogeneous world culture. More specifically France was resisting American culture. The French had the notion that America was this â€Å"financial and intellectual imperialism that grabs consciousnessRead MoreGlobalization And The Global Syst em1343 Words   |  6 PagesGlobalization one of the most controversial and widely recognized term, and is biggest threat to liberty in the 21st century. The consolidation of power and wealth into the hands of a few has absolutely no benefit, except of course to the power hungry CEO s of transnational’s looking to suck the life out of every nation they can exploit. Despite the propaganda from the global elite it s done nothing but destroy the middle class in United States and any other industrialized nation. It will eliminateRead MoreHow Foreign Cultures and Media Influence Local Cultures, and Whether Local Cultures Are Eroded by Foreign Influences and Media969 Words   |  4 Pagesyears, with the development of modern technology, globalisation has become an increasingly important phenomenon in the world. globalisation means the extending and deepening interdependencies of countries worldwide through economic, political and cultural integration. As the primary driver of glo balisation, mass media plays a decisive role in the process of globalisation, spreading Western products, ideas and values around the world, which has created a profound influence on local culture of otherRead More British Imperialism Essay1516 Words   |  7 PagesBritish Imperialism In many respects, the Boer War resembles the struggle toward globalization a century later that Friedman describes in The Lexus and the Olive Tree. The British, with their more advanced industry and technology, attempted to pull the Boer Republics away from the Olive tree and into the new global economy, golden straightjacket and all. The British Empire had much at stake in the conflict, and eventually achieved its main goals. It protected its holding at Cape Town, which

Information Security Plan Organiation Development

Question: Discuss about the Report for Information Security Plan of Organiation Development. Answer: Introduction The choice of simple accessibility along with less time utilization are the two driving components that have prompted the foundation of an e-commerce set-up within the worldwide markets. The development in this business is expanding in a way that all the clients don't have to waste their time any longer on shopping from physical stores. These organizations give efficient delivery of orders at customers doorsteps which work as a catalyst for the development of the organizations working in the e-commerce industry. Choose Deep firm is the prestigious organization which provides services to customers all over Asia. The organization has its complete presence in different areas of Asia; the organization also has the representative strength of hundreds of individuals who proficiently handle the requests and conveyances of incomprehensible client base within Asia. The organization's main goal is to give the best client experience and advantages so they can grow their client base as well as t heir operations around the entire world. This paper is a study about reflective practice as well as learning of different contexts about risk controlling and protection mechanisms for organizations information system. This study enables the reader to understand the impact of an interpersonal communication, specifically on management procedures and generate outcomes using proper theories. The relationship between the personnel and security and laws and ethics are discussed in this report. This report emphasizes on investigating the activities of controlling as well as monitoring the risk of information security frameworks within the organization. This study includes the risk controlling plans and functions, and protection mechanism that must be followed by the company. The personnel and security, and ethics and law suggests the use of PRT monitoring within the information security administration. Security System of ADP With the fast expansion of e-trade and e-business, organizations are confronting high pressure from clients, suppliers, and contenders. Their clients are seeking low cost, high caliber, and speedy supplement reacts. The adaptability to lessen the stock and to diminish the cost during the organization's operations procedure, has turned into a significant work for the company. Consequently, the organization requires the support of a solid alley to keep the competitive advantages which ERP framework emerges (Schneider, 2015). For the covert planning of data security framework into actions, the e-trade's organizations are conducting an examination to understand and to know about the clients needs and prerequisites (Ghosh, 2001). The selling and purchasing of products and services in the e-trade industry are posturing few security concerns and issues for the organizations. The unknown, prompt and interconnected way of deliverables have prompted the advancement of security dangers that are focusing on the retail benefits and the e-trade industry all the while. With the expansion in the innovation in technology and advancements, the recurrence of digital assaults is likewise expanding. Due to the digital risk, the clients are feeling hesitant to pick the online administrations for shopping or obtaining any item. The risk of getting some secret data about the bank account details, financial issues, and so forth are a few areas where the clients are not feeling sufficiently safe to buy from the online method of shopping. Controlling Risk The term hazard or risk is connected with the numerous human tasks due to its space investigation, atomic reactor development, organization acquisition, security assessments of data frameworks, or data frameworks advancement. Accordingly, individuals in an assortment of spaces have considered the opinion of the risk. It is grouped into three classes: unadulterated risk, crucial risk, and theoretical risk. The theoretical risk includes pick-up or misfortune by the firm. A case of theoretical risk might be an evolvement of execution of software for new data framework which can possibly reap incredible prices if the product strengthens the productivity of the firm. Then again, it might bring about a misfortune, for instance loss of venture (Huang, 2004). Risk Control Strategies At the point when dangers from data security dangers are making a focused inconvenience to IT and IT security groups of interest manage or control the dangers. Four basic strategies utilized to control or manage the risks: Avoidance: The suitable risk management procedure among all the procedure is elimination or avoidance, so Choosedeep.com ought to invest its efforts into exploring this choice wherever conceivable. The avoidance for the most part means not doing the task or a project at all in the future, yet it can likewise mean updating work and procedure so that the dangerous stride no longer must be taken. As a general rule, avoidance is regularly a great deal as it is more conceivable than numerous individuals might suspect because numerous dangers are presented with specific choices as well as can be un-presented or expelled by various choices, particularly, if the pioneer or chief who presented the risk or danger is responsible for settling the choices to stay away from the risk (Whitman and Mattord, 2004). Elimination or Avoidance procedures incorporate the alternative of not performing any activity which might convey risk by any chance. An example of this strategy is, not purchasing a proper ty and a business, and always keeping in mind the end goal not to take on the liability that accompanies it. Another example might be not flying to maintain a strategic distance from the danger being ready if the plane was hijacked. Avoidance might seem, as an appropriate solution for all dangers. However, keeping away from dangers, additionally implies missing out a possible gain that accepting the hazard might have permitted. Not entering a business to stay away from the danger of misfortune likewise avoids the likelihood of gaining benefits. Similarly, not flying means either not getting to the destination or choosing another method to travel (Knapp, Morris and Marshall, 2009). Transfer: Transfer is not generally accessible to the supervisor as a choice, yet in the to take a look at avoidance procedures this might be the best way to deal with risks. Transfer implies bringing about another party to acknowledge the risk, normally by contract and also by supporting. Protection is one kind of risk transfer, which utilizes contracts. Next time it might include contract dialect that transfers a hazard to some other party without any payment of a protection premium. The obligation among development or different temporary workers is regularly transferred in this way. This procedure empowers the firm to give the security or protection to those firms which has danger to their data framework or IS does not have greater security administration within the firm (Whitman, Mattord and Shackleford, 2006). For those organizations, this procedure will be appropriate in taking care of the issues with respect to the security. Bases on this idea the organizations will procure th e outside faculty or organizations to take the obligations of transfer skill security to the data which is inside the organization electronically or physically. Another example of transfer strategy will take balancing positions in subsidiary securities. This is normally how financial firms or reserve supervisors utilize hedging for the money-related risk administration. A few of the methods in which hazard is conceivably transferred falls in several classes. The hazard maintenance pools are in fact, holding the hazard for all participations, yet spreading it over the entire group includes transfer among people from the group. This is unique in relation to conventional protection, no premium is traded between individuals from the group in advance, but instead misfortunes are evaluated for all individuals from the group. From multiple points of views, the transfer might sound simple. However, if another group or a gathering of individuals or even an alternate firm can deal with a part icular hazard superior to anything a company would, it is a legitimate decision to pursue (Whitman and Mattord, 2004). Mitigation: Mitigation is basically worrying with a decrease in the effect that a specific hazard may have. According to this system, the organization normally acknowledges that the hazard cannot be avoided as well as transferred and now it just tries to lessen the expected damage or loss to the acceptable levels. Obviously, "adequate" is the subjective term as well as work with how many hazards the association might be agreeable in taking care of security from task to task and from project to project. However, in every case, the point is to either lower or improves the probability or reduce the effect. As a rule, relief includes accomplishing a lessening of the hazard effect. This implies that a firm relief methodologies ought to either decrease the likelihood of the happening of the hazard or reduce the general seriousness experienced when it happens. This process of transfer risks will be made by the organization while the occurrence of risk is in advance. With a specific end goal to utilize the control of risks, DRP is responsible for deciding the level of risk that can happen in the organization, evaluate the likelihood of the hazard, assessing the potential harm that could happen from assaults and assessing the feasibility of different controls (Ram, Corkindale and Wu, 2013). Acceptance: Risk acceptance is the risk controlling strategy which company will acknowledge with a specific end goal to accomplish its business objectives or destinations. Each person and association have an alternate level of hazard resistance frequently called its hazard hunger, with corporate culture and values being an essential driver behind satisfactory resilience levels. For example, the atomic business may have an exceptionally preservationist, generally safe resistance culture for everything because it frequently invests tons of energy and cash on hazard administration and security measures. A promoting organization, then again, may have a high hazard resistance culture and along these lines will make "less secure" choices around a great deal of things it does. The hazard resistance then is the aftereffect of settling on a thinking choice to bear the outcomes of an occasion that will happen. The resilience of the hazard can take two structures, detached and dynamic. Classes of controls Controlling danger through avoidance, mitigation and transference might be refined by executing controls and defends. Control Function: The safeguards and controls are intended to guard the vulnerability either preventive or criminologist. Preventive controls and safeguards stop endeavors to adventure the vulnerability by actualizing authorization of an authoritative strategy and a security rule, for example, confirmation and confidentiality. Engineering Layer: There are various controls applied in many layers of the organizational specialized designed security systems. Among the engineering layer designators utilize authoritative arrangement and outer systems. System Layer: Controls are some of the time characterized by the hazard control methodology which works inside evasion and moderation. Protection Mechanisms The information security is a general policy which has been set down in the firm to restrain the liberty of subordinates. The term business strategy depicts the information, abilities, as well as attitudes constituting the common administration of the entire firm. In a few cases, the term security policy is exchanged with a term methodology while in some cases the term signifies a particular reaction to dull circumstances. Some recommend that very much characterized policies don't really prompt to well-managed institutions along with that great directors ought to delegate strategy choices to others. It does not suggest that hierarchical approaches are a bit much, but strategies ought to develop after some time from a blend of working choices. The harm created by noxious action is boundless. The Microsoft Forefront Risk Management Gateway gives an exhaustive arrangement of barriers to ensure PCs and systems in your association from noxious movement and malware (Ram, Corkindale and Wu, 2013). Protection Mechanism consists of following steps: Interruption discovery. As an initial line of safeguarding, Forefront TMG gives mechanisms that examine all the activity to recognize bundles that were uniquely created for propelling particularly known sorts of assaults. Flood mitigation:. The aggressors can utilize substantial quantities of all around framed parcels that are sent from sources to goals permitted by the firewall approach to mounting surge assaults that drain the causality assets and incapacitate its administrations. The cutting edge TMG utilizes association counters and association breaking points to distinguish and pieces movement from customers that create exorbitant activity and permit true blue movement to keep on flowing. Malware assessment: The web movement might contain malware, for example, worms, infections, as well as spyware. Frontline TMG incorporates complete apparatuses for examining and blocking destructive substance, documents, and Web destinations. Utilizing Events as well as Alerts: When the forefront TMG distinguishes malignant action and pieces movement, it creates occasions, which can trigger cautions that are characterized in your arrangement. One can utilize these alarms, which are shown on the Alerts tab of the Monitoring hub, to track and moderate assaults. Cautions can be designed to perform particular activities, which incorporate sending email warnings, summoning an order, beginning and ceasing administrations, and logging (Huang, 2004). Personnel and Security During the time spent on empowering the component of ensuring the data the unique board of trustees was being selected specifically by the security advisory group. This panel has been going by the central security officer. Under this power there are different two branches required in it , which is data security chief and nearby security councils are available. The primary part of the data security administrators includes, making of approaches and giving some security against the dangers of the commpititors groups. In this procedure chiefs of the organization keeps up the information security technology to survey the security framework in the firm with the help of software which is PRTG programming software of money related control of the data framework. The organization Choosedeep.com has a decent structure for the productive security framework for private data. It influences the security framework by taking complete assistance of a technology furthermore the human force of work. The nearby security advisory groups introduce in the firm in charge of coordinating the workers. The board of trustees draws a framework which take care of different neighborhood security issues organization face and gives the undeniable data framework in the firm. There are various exceptional software which staff utilized to control and moniter the danger of data, and most of the organization use PRT monitering software which is a type of an electron in order to guarantee the security of the data. Company is likewise in charge of outlining and actualizing new security innovation within the firm. There are numerous security work force required in the security advisory group of the association which incorporates security examiner who guarantees the approaches and prerequisites of the association so as to meet the elements of the associations. Choosedeep.com likewise empowers to apply new process and innovation inside the firm. Ethics and Law Ethics are the policies or standards which guide the personnel behavior with respect to the different activities as well as decides what type of activities, whether right or wrong are performed within the firm. Each organization ought to use the ISSA code of morals keeping in mind the end goal to ensure the data in the association. Laws and morals are related to each other without morals, the laws can't be constrained on any person in the association. As the web started to begin, the issues and wrongdoings identification with this additionally started. So, the development of innovation is profitable to the general public, and business, yet in the meantime, it also has the danger of some level. In the event, if the client neglects to follow the morals and hurt numerous associations in the method, for robbing of the helpful data, extorting the general population for picking up cash in illicit ways, and so forth. In such circumstances, the laws of the data security will help the people. As the organization is probably aware of the security and assume a major part of any review or money-related firm is running with different E-trade and web. With the help of this law, the representatives must battle for the data security standards towards getting and controlling the danger of the data security framework in an association (Huang, 2004). There are numerous different laws identified with the responsibility of information, and also trust and digital security data sharing acts are there which helps in ensuring the classification of the data. As the innovation develops the shades of malice in business, expanding in an extraordinary way so the accompanying exchange will be made different issues confronted by the lawful framework in keeping up the upgraded innovation and couple of laws will be talked about in respect of the PC violations in the UK. There are different laws adopted by the Choosedeep.com concerning the data security framework. The representatives selected fo r the security reason must have the worldwide data confirmation declaration and also some other testament has the ISO 27001:2005 moral standard (Ram, Corkindale and Wu, 2013). PRT Network Monitor The PRT Network Monitor is a system observing apparatus that guarantees the accessibility of system segments and measures activity and utilize it. PRTG Network Monitor incorporates more than 150 sensor sorts for all normal system administrations, including HTTP, SMTP, FTP, POP3, and so on. It can ready clients to black out before its clients even notice them, by means of email, SMS, and a pager. Stunningly better, after clients utilize PRT to track and ask for times and uptime for a couple of months, organizations can streamline its system with the end goal that the pager never rings again. PRTG Network Monitor keeps running on a Windows machine inside the firm's system, gathering different insights from the machines, programming, and gadgets which the organization assigns. It additionally holds the information so the organization can see the verifiable execution, helping the firm to respond to changes. PRTG accompanies a simple to utilize web interface with a point-and-snap design w hich effectively imparts information from it to non-specialized partners and clients, by means of live charts and custom reports. The performance checking programming screens a system utilizing system information, procurement convention or organize administration conventions NMPs, for example, SNMP and records different information identified with system execution, for example, the said measurements of deferral, accessibility, and dependability. The product likewise shows the information/measurements utilizing diagrams for examination and frequently contains components to discover and analyze shortcomings or execution irregularities. The execution observing programming frequently underpins different components, for example, checking of different system gadgets/elements, including firewalls, switches, database servers and web servers, parcel sniffing, reporting and logging of execution insights and numerous sensors for observing different system administrations and conventions e.g. H TTP, UDP, POP3, TCP/IP, FTP, SMTP, and DNS. The three executions checking programming items that were analyzed includes PRT network, PRT organizes screen and Windows Server 2003 Performance Monitor utilized for observing Windows 2003 servers. The first item that will be examined is PRT Network Monitor. The PRT Network Monitor is appraised as one of the top-offering as well as prevalent system checking programming bundles that are accessible and available today (Paessler.com, 2016). According to the founders: Almost 150,000 administrators based on PRT Network Monitor daily control or monitor their Server, WAN, LAN, Apps, URLs as well as much more. This software contains a large group of components for the propelled client in the business packages, however, more restricted elements in the freeware and trial package. The features of the complete commercial are as follows: This software supports the accompanying sorts of checking: uptime and downtime observing or monitoring, transmission capacity monitoring, utilizing a few prominent system information securing conventions, for example, SNMP, WMI, Packing sniffing and Ciscoa NetFlow, application checking, Virtual Server checking, SLA checking, VoIP as well as QoS observing, ecological observing and LAN, WAN and VPN checking. Evaluation PRT Network Monitor software have the complete support needed by any system administration expert to monitor or check information system, which includes SNMP assistance, assistance for different system administrations and conventions and monitoring of measurements, for instance, accessibility, postponement, and parcel misfortune, each has their own advantages and disadvantages. The PRT Network Monitor software is unquestionably the least expensive alternative and practical in contrast to WPM, in this manner, it would be the prescribed choice for the organization with a vast system. What's more, its organizers assert that about 150,000 executives are utilizing it around the entire world, in this manner, it might be perceived as a higher quality software (Knapp, Morris and Marshall, 2009). Suggestions and Disadvantages The PRT Network Monitor software has a little form on iPhone stage for system observing. The client who is taking a shot of this product utilizing electronic interface which permits to arrange the gadgets needed to the screen, and make reports with tables and diagram charts. The manager who screens gadgets in the system can set purported sensors as Web administrations and are in-charge of checking the parameters of the system. The drawback is that it is tangled to a great degree to get the consent from the organization for checking off every single sensor. The download procedure of this product is basic, yet the difficult procedure here is the setup of the software. PRTG boasts more than eighty sensors, and with such numbers, it is troublesome for an association and a man to make sense of which sensor connected to a specific device is troublesome errand. In such cases, the PRT auto disclosure organization given by the association will be proposed to use. As physical including of the contraption is completely tormenting that is the reason the auto disclosure work is boundlessly enhanced than including the device physically. It is additionally prescribed to have a trial version of PRTG for thirty days before obtaining the verifiable one for the firm. The purchase of this product is exceptionally financed savvy and requires a constant reimbursement to impel the sensors opportunely as the association is giving costs comprehensive, so it is proposed that the quantity of sensors used by the association should be above thousand. It will help in watching the whole arrangement of the Choosedeep.com organization. Conclusion This report discussed the issues that extensive systems confront and the system administration techniques that can be practiced to mitigate and forestall the issue of information security program. It additionally discussed the measurements that can be observed and rectified to enhance and arrange execution of unwavering quality. It has also been concluded from this investigation that the data security framework is crucial for the firms which have delicate information about their clients. Keeping up the data security framework, it requires a particular security advisory group to be selected and arrangements and methods, law and morals to be worried as the part of the hazard control in the data framework. It is proposed to utilize the PRT programming for the organization which is locked in with numerous delicate or sensitive data so as to control and monitor the hazard acquired all the while. References Ghosh, A. (2001). Security and Privacy for E-Business. [online] Available at: https://www.usq.edu.au/course/specification/2004/CIS8018-S2-2004-34247.pdf [Accessed 17 Oct. 2016]. Huang, S., Chang, I., Li, S. and Lin, M. (2004). 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